The Paleolithic horizon represented here spans the deep chill of the Last Glacial Maximum into the warming that preceded the Holocene (c. 44,169–10,955 BCE). Archaeological data indicates a mosaic of regional traditions: the Iberomaurusian in Morocco, the diverse Upper Paleolithic industries of western Europe (El Mirón, Spain; Grotte du Bichon, Switzerland; Rigney and Rochedane, France), and the rich Eastern European and Siberian records at Kostenki and Mal'ta in Russia. Sites such as Bacho Kiro Cave (Bulgaria) and Cioclovina (Romania) preserve human remains in contexts that hint at complex mobility and long‑distance connections.
Genetic evidence from 47 individuals shows repeated population continuity and pulses of movement. Ancient North Eurasian ancestry, documented in Mal'ta (MA1) and Kostenki individuals, contributes to a broad Eurasian genetic substrate; however, regional differentiation is clear — western Europe carries a distinct hunter‑gatherer profile compared with Upper Paleolithic Siberia. Limited evidence from North Africa (Iberomaurusian) includes mtDNA lineages like M1b that suggest links between northern Africa and southwest Asia, but sample representation there remains sparse. Climatic oscillations — stadials and interstadials — likely redirected population routes, concentrating people in refugia such as the Swabian Jura (Brillenhöhle, Burkhardtshöhle) and the Cantabrian zone (El Mirón).
Uncertainties remain: sample density varies by region, and demographic events such as local extinctions or rapid replacements can be difficult to resolve from current data. Ongoing sampling at key sites will refine timing and directionality of Paleolithic dispersals.
